Genetic diversity refers to the variability of genetic material within a population or a species and is a component of biodiversity[1] . Because of genetic diversity, plants and animals can adapt to environmental changes. In a rapidly changing climate, this ability is increasingly important, and preventing the loss of agricultural genetic diversity can help humankind adapt to climate change [2] .
Genetic diversity has important ecological effects on populations, communities and ecosystems. Primary productivity, population recovery from disturbance, interspecific competition and community structure are some of the ecological processes affected by genetic diversity [3] . For instance, if a population that only reproduces with its own members is hit by a disease, or faces extreme weather conditions, it is likely that this affects the entire population, thus risking its very survival [4] .
Genetic Diversity and Food
In food production, genetic diversity is key for long-term sustainability and resilience. As millions of people depend on farming, fishing and livestock keeping to survive, varieties of crops and animals that can thrive in the changing climate are needed [5] . Today, nine crops account for 75% of plant contribution to the human dietary energy, and only three crops account for 60 %. These crops have been selected and domesticated to fit human purposes, while less useful crops have been neglected. Through this selection, the variety of food crops has decreased. [6][7]
Genetic diversity in food production can be enhanced by natural selection or by careful planning in the field of agriculture. By planting several varieties in the same field, farmers can minimize crop failure and adapt to changing conditions. The development of pest resistant strains is one of the biggest uses of genetic diversity of crops[8] . Genetic diversity is highest is so called centres of diversity, where farmers practice traditional agriculture, using both cultivated races and races that survive in the wild [9] .
In 19th century Ireland, lack of genetic diversity caused a potato famine. Heavy dependence on potatoes and the production of potatoes using a parent potato, rather than seeds, resulted in the destruction of an entire potato population when an invasive pathogen attacked the potatoes that were all genetically identical. Had there been more genetic diversity among the potatoes, some of them might have contained genes that bore resistance to the pathogen and Ireland would have not have suffered such a tough famine.[10]
In animal agriculture, genetic diversity is used to increase production through selection of productive genetic stock [11] . The diversity provides raw materials for the farmers to improve and adapt their livestock populations according to changes in the environment and demand [12] . For instance, the amount of milk produced by cows today is significantly higher than it was a few decades ago [13] . Indiscriminate cross-breeding, increasing use of non-native breeds, weak regulation of the livestock sector, declining traditional animal agriculture and neglect of non-competitive breeds cause genetic erosion in farm animals, meaning that their gene pool becomes smaller and the animals become more vulnerable to change [14] . Today 38 species and 8774 separate breeds of domesticated mammals and birds are used in food production [15] .
The export of domesticated animals from developed to developing countries poses a serious threat to genetic diversity, since this leads to crossbreeding and replacement of local breeds, and the exported animals are poorly suited for developing country conditions[16] . While developing countries have the richest diversity of domesticated animals, the loss of genetic diversity is also the fastest here[17] . Developed countries rely on a few carefully selected breeds that are efficient in producing meat, milk or eggs[18] . These animals require intensive management, specific food and medication and the use of advanced technology, all of which make them difficult to keep in developing countries[19] . Despite of this, many developing countries opt for highly productive imported breeds instead of local ones[20] .
Controlled interbreeding has been practiced for thousands of animal generations, and as a result, the animals used in agricultire are no longer related to wild animals [21] . The genetic base of farmed animals is already narrow, and lost diversity cannot be replaced. When a breed becomes extinct, it is extinct forever [22][23] . For example, one breed of meaty-breasted turkey accounts for 99 percent of turkeys in the U.S, and this breed requires human assistance in order to reproduce [24] . Without artificial insemination, preformed by humans, 99 percent of the turkeys in the U.S would become extinct in one generation.
Katriina Soini is a researcher at the Natural Resources Institute Finland. In the interview below she talks about the genetic diversity of farm animals and how this diversity can be preserved.
Relation to SDGs
SDG 2, Zero Hunger, includes the following target: "By 2020, maintain the genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated animals and their related wild species, including through soundly managed and diversified seed and plant banks at the national, regional and international levels, and promote access to and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge, as internationally agreed".[25]
SDG 15, Life on land, aims to “sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, halt and reverse land degradation, halt biodiversity loss”. As genetic diversity is a form of biodiversity, preserving it is an important part of achieving goal 15. The targets of goal 15 urge taking action to halt the loss of biodiversity, promoting fair sharing of the benefits that come from using genetic resources and integrating ecosystem and biodiversity values into planning and strategies [26] .
Illustration of Corporate Praxis
The most cost-effective way of protecting genetic diversity for the future is to use as many different breeds as possible[27] . Identification of breeds threatened by extinction and protection of indigenous breeds from imported breeds are other important ways of conserving genetic diversity [28] .
The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) is an nonprofit research organization “dedicated to reducing poverty and hunger through rice science”. IRRI is based in the Philippines but has offices in 17 rice-growing countries. IRRI works on uncovering new genes and traits in rice that can help dealing with climate change, pests and diseases. IRRI has a gene bank with the widest rice genetic diversity in the world, storing 127 000 rice accessions and wild relatives. Part of IRRI’s work is to conserve, analyze, discover and disseminate different types of rice. IRRI also provides seeds for farmers and researchers, following international agreements on fair and responsible use and sharing of rice genetic diversity. [29][30]
Critique
There is scientific consensus that conserving genetic diversity is important, and the concept is not one that has received much criticism. However, one widely criticized practice that is feared to cause loss of genetic diversity is genetic engineering. Genetic engineering is a way of adding desired traits to plants and animals in a laboratory. For instance, plants can be made pest resistant, so that bigger crops can be secured, and animals can be made to produce more nutritious products. Some see genetically modified organisms, (GMOs) as a solution to ending hunger, while others fear genetic engineering can have unpredictable consequences and reduce genetic diversity in the environment, resulting in less resilience to climate change. In genetically engineered agriculture, the DNA of individuals within a population becomes more homogenous than in regular agriculture. [31]
Examples from Finland
Finland's National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, through which Finland implements the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) contains actions that Finland is taking to stop the decline of biodiversity in Finland [32][33] . The actions that are being taken or have been taken for the conservation of genetic diversity in Finland include developing a conservation program for wild relatives to crops [34] , ensuring the conservation of threatened native fish stocks and the genetic diversity of economically important fish stocks [35] as well as banning or restricting the cultivation of GMO plants [36] .
^ UN, (2017). Forests, desertification and biodiversity - United Nations Sustainable Development. [online] United Nations Sustainable Development. Available at: http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/biodiversity/ [Accessed 23 Feb. 2017].
^ Sahai, S. (2010). The Role of Genetic Diversity in Ensuring Food Security in South Asia. South Asian Survey, 17(1), pp.111-129.
^ Sahai, S. (2010). The Role of Genetic Diversity in Ensuring Food Security in South Asia. South Asian Survey, 17(1), pp.111-129.
^ FAO, (2016). FAO - News Article: Genetic diversity of livestock can help feed a hotter, harsher world. [online] Fao.org. Available at: http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/380661/icode/ [Accessed 23 Feb. 2017].
^ FAO, (2016). FAO - News Article: Genetic diversity of livestock can help feed a hotter, harsher world. [online] Fao.org. Available at: http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/380661/icode/ [Accessed 23 Feb. 2017].
^ Iversen, K. (2000). One third of farm animal breeds face extinction. [online] Fao.org. Available at: http://www.fao.org/News/2000/001201-e.htm [Accessed 15 Mar. 2017].
^ FAO, (n.d.). Agrobiodiversity: the case for conserving domestic and related animals. [online] Fao.org. Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/v1650t/v1650t0y.htm [Accessed 15 Mar. 2017].
^ FAO, (n.d.). Agrobiodiversity: the case for conserving domestic and related animals. [online] Fao.org. Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/v1650t/v1650t0y.htm [Accessed 15 Mar. 2017].
^ FAO, (n.d.). Agrobiodiversity: the case for conserving domestic and related animals. [online] Fao.org. Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/v1650t/v1650t0y.htm [Accessed 15 Mar. 2017].
^ Iversen, K. (2000). One third of farm animal breeds face extinction. [online] Fao.org. Available at: http://www.fao.org/News/2000/001201-e.htm [Accessed 15 Mar. 2017].
^ FAO, (n.d.). Agrobiodiversity: the case for conserving domestic and related animals. [online] Fao.org. Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/v1650t/v1650t0y.htm [Accessed 15 Mar. 2017].
^ FAO, (n.d.). Agrobiodiversity: the case for conserving domestic and related animals. [online] Fao.org. Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/v1650t/v1650t0y.htm [Accessed 15 Mar. 2017].
^ Iversen, K. (2000). One third of farm animal breeds face extinction. [online] Fao.org. Available at: http://www.fao.org/News/2000/001201-e.htm [Accessed 15 Mar. 2017].
^ FAO, (n.d.). Agrobiodiversity: the case for conserving domestic and related animals. [online] Fao.org. Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/v1650t/v1650t0y.htm [Accessed 15 Mar. 2017].
^ United Nations Sustainable Development. (n.d.). Hunger and food security - United Nations Sustainable Development. [online] Available at: http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/hunger/ [Accessed 15 Mar. 2017].
^ UN, (2017). Forests, desertification and biodiversity - United Nations Sustainable Development. [online] United Nations Sustainable Development. Available at: http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/biodiversity/ [Accessed 23 Feb. 2017].
^ Iversen, K. (2000). One third of farm animal breeds face extinction. [online] Fao.org. Available at: http://www.fao.org/News/2000/001201-e.htm [Accessed 15 Mar. 2017].
^ FAO, (n.d.). Agrobiodiversity: the case for conserving domestic and related animals. [online] Fao.org. Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/v1650t/v1650t0y.htm [Accessed 15 Mar. 2017].
Definition
Genetic diversity refers to the variability of genetic material within a population or a species and is a component of biodiversity[1] . Because of genetic diversity, plants and animals can adapt to environmental changes. In a rapidly changing climate, this ability is increasingly important, and preventing the loss of agricultural genetic diversity can help humankind adapt to climate change [2] .
Genetic diversity has important ecological effects on populations, communities and ecosystems. Primary productivity, population recovery from disturbance, interspecific competition and community structure are some of the ecological processes affected by genetic diversity [3] . For instance, if a population that only reproduces with its own members is hit by a disease, or faces extreme weather conditions, it is likely that this affects the entire population, thus risking its very survival [4] .
Genetic Diversity and Food
In food production, genetic diversity is key for long-term sustainability and resilience. As millions of people depend on farming, fishing and livestock keeping to survive, varieties of crops and animals that can thrive in the changing climate are needed [5] . Today, nine crops account for 75% of plant contribution to the human dietary energy, and only three crops account for 60 %. These crops have been selected and domesticated to fit human purposes, while less useful crops have been neglected. Through this selection, the variety of food crops has decreased. [6] [7]
Genetic diversity in food production can be enhanced by natural selection or by careful planning in the field of agriculture. By planting several varieties in the same field, farmers can minimize crop failure and adapt to changing conditions. The development of pest resistant strains is one of the biggest uses of genetic diversity of crops[8] . Genetic diversity is highest is so called centres of diversity, where farmers practice traditional agriculture, using both cultivated races and races that survive in the wild [9] .
In 19th century Ireland, lack of genetic diversity caused a potato famine. Heavy dependence on potatoes and the production of potatoes using a parent potato, rather than seeds, resulted in the destruction of an entire potato population when an invasive pathogen attacked the potatoes that were all genetically identical. Had there been more genetic diversity among the potatoes, some of them might have contained genes that bore resistance to the pathogen and Ireland would have not have suffered such a tough famine.[10]
In animal agriculture, genetic diversity is used to increase production through selection of productive genetic stock [11] . The diversity provides raw materials for the farmers to improve and adapt their livestock populations according to changes in the environment and demand [12] . For instance, the amount of milk produced by cows today is significantly higher than it was a few decades ago [13] . Indiscriminate cross-breeding, increasing use of non-native breeds, weak regulation of the livestock sector, declining traditional animal agriculture and neglect of non-competitive breeds cause genetic erosion in farm animals, meaning that their gene pool becomes smaller and the animals become more vulnerable to change [14] . Today 38 species and 8774 separate breeds of domesticated mammals and birds are used in food production [15] .
The export of domesticated animals from developed to developing countries poses a serious threat to genetic diversity, since this leads to crossbreeding and replacement of local breeds, and the exported animals are poorly suited for developing country conditions[16] . While developing countries have the richest diversity of domesticated animals, the loss of genetic diversity is also the fastest here[17] . Developed countries rely on a few carefully selected breeds that are efficient in producing meat, milk or eggs[18] . These animals require intensive management, specific food and medication and the use of advanced technology, all of which make them difficult to keep in developing countries[19] . Despite of this, many developing countries opt for highly productive imported breeds instead of local ones[20] .
Controlled interbreeding has been practiced for thousands of animal generations, and as a result, the animals used in agricultire are no longer related to wild animals [21] . The genetic base of farmed animals is already narrow, and lost diversity cannot be replaced. When a breed becomes extinct, it is extinct forever [22] [23] . For example, one breed of meaty-breasted turkey accounts for 99 percent of turkeys in the U.S, and this breed requires human assistance in order to reproduce [24] . Without artificial insemination, preformed by humans, 99 percent of the turkeys in the U.S would become extinct in one generation.
Katriina Soini is a researcher at the Natural Resources Institute Finland. In the interview below she talks about the genetic diversity of farm animals and how this diversity can be preserved.
Relation to SDGs
SDG 2, Zero Hunger, includes the following target: "By 2020, maintain the genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated animals and their related wild species, including through soundly managed and diversified seed and plant banks at the national, regional and international levels, and promote access to and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge, as internationally agreed".[25]
SDG 15, Life on land, aims to “sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, halt and reverse land degradation, halt biodiversity loss”. As genetic diversity is a form of biodiversity, preserving it is an important part of achieving goal 15. The targets of goal 15 urge taking action to halt the loss of biodiversity, promoting fair sharing of the benefits that come from using genetic resources and integrating ecosystem and biodiversity values into planning and strategies [26] .
Illustration of Corporate Praxis
The most cost-effective way of protecting genetic diversity for the future is to use as many different breeds as possible[27] . Identification of breeds threatened by extinction and protection of indigenous breeds from imported breeds are other important ways of conserving genetic diversity [28] .
The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) is an nonprofit research organization “dedicated to reducing poverty and hunger through rice science”. IRRI is based in the Philippines but has offices in 17 rice-growing countries. IRRI works on uncovering new genes and traits in rice that can help dealing with climate change, pests and diseases. IRRI has a gene bank with the widest rice genetic diversity in the world, storing 127 000 rice accessions and wild relatives. Part of IRRI’s work is to conserve, analyze, discover and disseminate different types of rice. IRRI also provides seeds for farmers and researchers, following international agreements on fair and responsible use and sharing of rice genetic diversity. [29] [30]
Critique
There is scientific consensus that conserving genetic diversity is important, and the concept is not one that has received much criticism. However, one widely criticized practice that is feared to cause loss of genetic diversity is genetic engineering. Genetic engineering is a way of adding desired traits to plants and animals in a laboratory. For instance, plants can be made pest resistant, so that bigger crops can be secured, and animals can be made to produce more nutritious products. Some see genetically modified organisms, (GMOs) as a solution to ending hunger, while others fear genetic engineering can have unpredictable consequences and reduce genetic diversity in the environment, resulting in less resilience to climate change. In genetically engineered agriculture, the DNA of individuals within a population becomes more homogenous than in regular agriculture. [31]
Examples from Finland
Finland's National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, through which Finland implements the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) contains actions that Finland is taking to stop the decline of biodiversity in Finland [32] [33] . The actions that are being taken or have been taken for the conservation of genetic diversity in Finland include developing a conservation program for wild relatives to crops [34] , ensuring the conservation of threatened native fish stocks and the genetic diversity of economically important fish stocks [35] as well as banning or restricting the cultivation of GMO plants [36] .
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